Notes for Exodus 21:1LEB
There follows now a series of rulings called "the decisions" or "the judgments" (הַמִּשְׁפָּטִים, hammishpatim). A precept is stated, and then various cases in which the law is applicable are examined. These rulings are all in harmony with the Decalogue that has just been given and can be grouped into three categories: civil or criminal laws, religious or cultic laws, and moral or humanitarian laws. The civil and criminal laws make up most of chap. 21; the next two chapters mix the other kinds of laws. Among the many studies of this section of the book are F. C. Fensham, "The Role of Yahweh in the Legal Sections of the Covenant Code," VT 26 (1976): 262-74; S. Paul, "Unrecognized Biblical Legal Idioms in Light of Comparative Akkadian Expressions," RB 86 (1979): 231-39; M. Galston, "The Purpose of the Law According to Maimonides," JQR 69 (1978): 27-51.
Notes for Exodus 21:2LEB
See H. L. Elleson, "The Hebrew Slave: A Study in Early Israelite Society," EvQ 45 (1973): 30-35; N. P. Lemche, "The Manumission of Slaves – The Fallow Year – The Sabbatical Year – The Jobel Year," VT 26 (1976): 38-59, and "The ‘Hebrew Slave,’ Comments on the Slave Law – ( 21:2–11, " VT 25 (1975): 129-44.
The verbs in both the conditional clause and the following ruling are imperfect tense: "If you buy…then he will serve." The second imperfect tense (the ruling) could be taken either as a specific future or an obligatory imperfect. Gesenius explains how the verb works in the conditional clauses here (see GKC 497 §159.bb).
The interpretation of "Hebrew" in this verse is uncertain: (l) a gentilic ending, (2) a fellow Israelite, (3) or a class of mercenaries of the population (see W. C. Kaiser, Jr., "Exodus" EBC 2:431). It seems likely that the term describes someone born a Hebrew, as opposed to a foreigner (S. R. Driver, Exodus 210). The literature on this includes: M. P. Gray, "The Habiru-Hebrew Problem," HUCA 29 (1958): 135-202.
The word חָפְשִׁי (khofshi) means "free." It is possible that there is some connection between this word and a technical term used in other cultures for a social class of emancipated slaves who were freemen again (see I. Mendelsohn, "New Light on the Hupsu," BASOR 139 [1955]: 9-11).
The adverb חִנָּם (hinnam) means "gratis, free"; it is related to the verb "to be gracious, show favor" and the noun "grace."
Notes for Exodus 21:3LEB
The tense is imperfect, but in the conditional clause it clearly refers to action that is anterior to the action in the next clause. "if he comes in single, he goes out single," that is, "if he came in single, he will go out single."
"with his back" meaning "alone."
The phrase says, "if he was the possessor of a wife"; the noun בַּעַל (ba’al) can mean "possessor" or "husband." If there was a wife, she shared his fortunes or his servitude; if he entered with her, she would accompany him when he left.
Notes for Exodus 21:4LEB
The slave would not have the right or the means to acquire a wife. Thus, the idea of the master’s "giving" him a wife is clear – the master would have to pay the bride price and make the provision. In this case, the wife and the children are actually the possession of the master unless the slave were to pay the bride price – but he is a slave because he got into debt. The law assumes that the master was better able to provide for this woman than the freed slave and that it was most important to keep the children with the mother.
Notes for Exodus 21:5LEB
The imperfect with the infinitive absolute means that the declaration is unambiguous, that the servant will clearly affirm that he wants to stay with the master. Gesenius says that in a case like this the infinitive emphasizes the importance of the condition on which some consequence depends (GKC 342-43 §113.o).
Or taken as a desiderative imperfect, it would say, "I do not want to go out free."
Notes for Exodus 21:6LEB
The word is הָאֱלֹהִים (ha’elohim). S. R. Driver (Exodus 211) says the phrase means "to Yahweh," namely the nearest sanctuary in order that the oath and the ritual might be made solemn, although he does say that it would be done by human judges. That the reference is to Yahweh is the view also of F. C. Fensham, "New Light on ( 21:7LEB and Exodus 22:7LEB from the Laws of Eshnunna," JBL 78 (1959): 160-61. Cf. also ASV, NAB, NASB, NCV, NRSV, NLT. Others have made a stronger case that it refers to judges who acted on behalf of Yahweh; see C. Gordon, "אלהים in its Reputed Meaning of Rulers, Judges," JBL 54 (1935): 134-44; and A. E. Draffkorn, "Ilani/Elohim," JBL 76 (1957): 216-24; cf. KJV, NIV.
Or "till his life’s end" (as in the idiom: "serve him for good").
Notes for Exodus 21:7LEB
This paragraph is troubling to modern readers, but given the way that marriages were contracted and the way people lived in the ancient world, it was a good provision for people who might want to find a better life for their daughter. On the subject in general for this chapter, see W. M. Swartley, Slavery, Sabbath, War, and Women, 31–64.
The word אָמָה (’amah) refers to a female servant who would eventually become a concubine or wife; the sale price included the amount for the service as well as the bride price (see B. Jacob, Exodus 621). The arrangement recognized her honor as an Israelite woman, one who could be a wife, even though she entered the household in service. The marriage was not automatic, as the conditions show, but her treatment was safeguarded come what may. The law was a way, then, for a poor man to provide a better life for a daughter.
Notes for Exodus 21:8LEB
"and if unpleasant (רָעָה, ra’ah) in the eyes of her master."
The verb יָעַד (ya’ad) does not mean "betroth, espouse" as some of the earlier translations had it, but "to designate." When he bought the girl, he designated her for himself, giving her and her family certain expectations.
The verb is a Hiphil perfect with vav (ו) consecutive from פָדָה (padah, "to redeem"). Here in the apodosis the form is equivalent to an imperfect: "let someone redeem her" – perhaps her father if he can, or another. U. Cassuto says it can also mean she can redeem herself and dissolve the relationship (Exodus 268).
"he has no authority/power," for the verb means "rule, have dominion."
The deceit is in not making her his wife or concubine as the arrangement had stipulated.
Notes for Exodus 21:9LEB
Or "after the manner of" (KJV, ASV); NRSV "shall deal with her as with a daughter."
Notes for Exodus 21:10LEB
"wife" has been supplied.
The translation of "food" does not quite do justice to the Hebrew word. It is "flesh." The issue here is that the family she was to marry into is wealthy, they ate meat. She was not just to be given the basic food the ordinary people ate, but the fine foods that this family ate.
See S. Paul, "( 21:10LEB, A Threefold Maintenance Clause," JNES 28 (1969): 48-53. Paul suggests that the third element listed is not marital rights but ointments since Sumerian and Akkadian texts list food, clothing, and oil as the necessities of life. The translation of "marital rights" is far from certain, since the word occurs only here. The point is that the woman was to be cared for with all that was required for a woman in that situation.
Notes for Exodus 21:11LEB
The lessons of slavery and service are designed to bring justice to existing customs in antiquity. The message is: Those in slavery for one reason or another should have the hope of freedom and the choice of service (vv. 2–6). For the rulings on the daughter, the message could be: Women, who were often at the mercy of their husbands or masters, must not be trapped in an unfortunate situation, but be treated well by their masters or husbands (vv. 7–11). Yahweh is preventing people who have power over others from abusing it.
Notes for Exodus 21:12LEB
The underlying point of this section remains vital today: The people of Yahweh must treat all human life as sacred.
The construction uses a Hiphil participle in construct with the noun for "man" (or person as is understood in a law for the nation): "the one striking [of] a man." This is a casus pendens (independent nominative absolute); it indicates the condition or action that involves further consequence (GKC 361 §116.w).
The Hebrew word וָמֵת (vamet) is a Qal perfect with vav consecutive; it means "and he dies" and not "and killed him" (which require another stem). Gesenius notes that this form after a participle is the equivalent of a sentence representing a contingent action (GKC 333 §112.n). The word shows the result of the action in the opening participle. It is therefore a case of murder or manslaughter.
See A. Phillips, "Another Look at Murder," JJS 28 (1977): 105-26.
Notes for Exodus 21:13LEB
"if he does not lie in wait" (NASB similar).
"and Yahweh brought into his hand." The death is unintended, its circumstances outside human control.
Notes for Exodus 21:14LEB
The word עָרְמָה (’ormah) is problematic. It could mean with prior intent, which would be connected with the word in Prov 8:5-12LEB which means "understanding" (or "prudence" – fully aware of the way things are). It could be connected also to an Arabic word for "enemy" which would indicate this was done with malice or evil intentions (U. Cassuto, Exodus 270). The use here seems parallel to the one in Josh 9:4LEB, an instance involving intentionality and clever deception.
Notes for Exodus 21:15LEB
This is the same construction that was used in v. 12, but here there is no mention of the parents’ death. This attack, then, does not lead to their death – if he killed one of them then v. 12 would be the law. S. R. Driver says that the severity of the penalty was in accord with the high view of parents (Exodus 216).
Notes for Exodus 21:16LEB
"a stealer of a man," thus "anyone stealing a man."
The implication is that it would be an Israelite citizen who was kidnapped and sold to a foreign tribe or country (like Joseph). There was always a market for slaves. The crime would be in forcibly taking the individual away from his home and religion and putting him into bondage or death.
Literally "and he is found in his hand" (KJV and ASV both similar), being not yet sold.
Notes for Exodus 21:17LEB
The form is a Piel participle from קָלַל (qalal), meaning in Qal "be light," in Piel "treat lightly, curse, revile, declare contemptible, treat shamefully." (See its use in Lev 19:14LEB; Josh 24:9LEB; Judg 9:26–28LEB; 1 Sam 3:13LEB; 1 Sam 17:43LEB; 2 Sam 16:5–13LEB; Prov 30:10–11LEB; Eccl 7:21–22LEB; Eccl 10:20LEB.) It is opposite of "honor" (כָּבֵד, kaved; Qal "be heavy"; Piel "honor," as in Exodus 20:12LEB) and of "bless." This verse then could refer to any act contrary to the commandment to honor the parents. B. Jacob (Exodus 640) cites parallels in Sumerian where people were severely punished for publicly disowning their parents. "Exodus 21:15-17LEB taken together evoke the picture of parents who, physically and verbally, are forcibly turned out of the house (cf. Prov. 19:26)" (C. Houtman, Exodus 3:148).
Notes for Exodus 21:18LEB
"falls to bed."
Notes for Exodus 21:19LEB
"and then" has been supplied.
The verb is a Hitpael perfect with vav (ו) consecutive; it follows the sequence of the imperfect before it – "if he gets up and walks about." This is proof of recovery.
The imperfect tense carries a nuance of obligatory imperfect because this is binding on the one who hit him.
"his"; the referent (the injured person) has been specified in the translation for clarity.
The word appears to be the infinitive from the verb "to sit" with a meaning of "his sitting down"; some suggest it is from the verb "to rest" with a meaning "cease." In either case the point in the context must mean compensation is due for the time he was down.
Notes for Exodus 21:20LEB
"so that he"; the words "or she" have been supplied in the translation for stylistic reasons.
"under his hand."
"will be avenged" (how is not specified).
Notes for Exodus 21:21LEB
"if he"; the referent (the servant struck and injured in the previous verse) has been specified in the translation for clarity.
"he"; the referent (the owner of the injured servant) has been supplied in the translation for clarity.
This last clause is a free paraphrase of the Hebrew, "for he is his money" (so KJV, ASV); NASB "his property." It seems that if the slave survives a couple of days, it is probable that the master was punishing him and not intending to kill him. If he then dies, there is no penalty other than that the owner loses the slave who is his property – he suffers the loss.
Notes for Exodus 21:22LEB
This line has occasioned a good deal of discussion. It may indicate that the child was killed, as in a miscarriage; or it may mean that there was a premature birth. The latter view is taken here because of the way the whole section is written: (1) "her children come out" reflects a birth and not the loss of children, (2) there is no serious damage, and (3) payment is to be set for any remuneration. The word אָסוֹן (’ason) is translated "serious damage." The word was taken in Mekilta to mean "death." U. Cassuto says the point of the phrase is that neither the woman or the children that are born die (Exodus 275). But see among the literature on this: M. G. Kline, "Lex Talionis and the Human Fetus," JETS 20 (1977): 193-201; W. House, "Miscarriage or Premature Birth: Additional Thoughts on ( 21:22–25LEB, " WTJ 41 (1978): 108-23; S. E. Loewenstamm, "( 21:22–25LEB, " VT 27 (1977): 352-60.
The word בִּפְלִלִים (biflilim) means "with arbitrators." The point then seems to be that the amount of remuneration for damages that was fixed by the husband had to be approved by the courts. S. R. Driver mentions an alternative to this unusual reading presented by Budde, reading בנפלים as "untimely birth" (Exodus 219). See also E. A. Speiser, "The Stem PLL in Hebrew," JBL 82 (1963): 301-6.
Notes for Exodus 21:25LEB
The text now introduces the Lex Talionis with cases that were not likely to have applied to the situation of the pregnant woman. See K. Luke, "Eye for Eye, Tooth for Tooth," Indian Theological Studies 16 (1979): 326-43.
Notes for Exodus 21:26LEB
The form וְשִׁחֲתָהּ (véshikhatah) is the Piel perfect with the vav (ל) consecutive, rendered "and destroys it." The verb is a strong one, meaning "to ruin, completely destroy."
"him"; the referent (the male or female servant) has been specified in the translation for clarity.
Interestingly, the verb used here for "let him go" is the same verb throughout the first part of the book for "release" of the Israelites from slavery. Here, an Israelite will have to release the injured slave.
Notes for Exodus 21:27LEB
"him"; the referent (the male or female servant) has been specified in the translation for clarity.
Notes for Exodus 21:28LEB
The point that this section of the laws makes is that one must ensure the safety of others by controlling the circumstances.
Traditionally "ox," but "bull" would also be suitable. The term may refer to one of any variety of large cattle.
"and he dies"; KJV "that they die"; NAB, NASB "to death."
The text uses סָקוֹל יִסָּקֵל (saqol yissaqel), a Qal infinitive absolute with a Niphal imperfect. The infinitive intensifies the imperfect, which here has an obligatory nuance or is a future of instruction.
Notes for Exodus 21:29LEB
The Hophal perfect has the idea of "attested, testified against."
"he was not keeping it" or perhaps guarding or watching it (referring to the ox).
Notes for Exodus 21:30LEB
The family of the victim would set the amount for the ransom of the man guilty of criminal neglect. This practice was common in the ancient world, rare in Israel. If the family allowed the substitute price, then the man would be able to redeem his life.
Notes for Exodus 21:31LEB
"it"; the referent (the ox) has been specified in the translation for clarity.
"he"; the referent (the owner) has been specified in the translation for clarity.
"according to this judgment it shall be done to him."
Notes for Exodus 21:32LEB
"he"; the referent (the owner) has been specified in the translation for clarity.
A shekel was a unit for measure by means of a scale. Both the weight and the value of a shekel of silver are hard to determine. "Though there is no certainty, the shekel is said to weigh about 11, 5 grams" (C. Houtman, Exodus 3:181). Over four hundred years earlier, Joseph was sold into Egypt for 20 shekels. The free Israelite citizen was worth about 50 shekels (Lev 27:3LEB.).
See further B. S. Jackson, "The Goring Ox Again [( 21:28–36LEB]," JJP 18 (1974): 55-94.
Notes for Exodus 21:34LEB
The verb is a Piel imperfect from שָׁלַם (shalam); it has the idea of making payment in full, making recompense, repaying. These imperfects could be given a future tense translation as imperfects of instruction, but in the property cases an obligatory imperfect fits better – this is what he is bound or obliged to do – what he must do.
"silver."
Here the term "animal" has been supplied.
Notes for Exodus 21:35LEB
Literally "its silver" or "silver for it."
"divide the dead." The noun "ox" has been supplied.
Notes for Exodus 21:36LEB
The construction now uses the same Piel imperfect (v. 34) but adds the infinitive absolute to it for emphasis.
The point of this section (Exodus 21:28–36LEB) seems to be that one must ensure the safety of others by controlling one’s property and possessions. This section pertained to neglect with animals, but the message would have applied to similar situations. The people of Yahweh were to take heed to ensure the well-being of others, and if there was a problem, it had to be made right.